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Order these events/ideas to explain how seismic data reveals a liquid outer core, from observation to conclusion.

  • Seismographs around Earth record P- and S-wave arrivals from many earthquakes.

  • A region is found where S-waves are not detected (an S-wave shadow zone).

  • A large internal liquid layer is inferred: Earth’s outer core, creating the shadow zone.

  • S-waves are recognized to require shear strength and therefore cannot travel through liquids.

Course
Introductory Physical Geology: Earth Materials, Plate Tectonics,
10 units48 lessons
Topics
Geology (Physical Geology)MineralogyPetrology (Igneous/Sedimentary/Metamorphic)Geophysics (seismology, Earth structure)Tectonics and Structural GeologyGeomorphology / Surface Processes
About this course

This course provides a beginner-friendly survey of Physical Geology focused on how Earth works and how to interpret geologic evidence. Core topics include Earth’s layered structure and internal heat; mineral identification and the origins of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks within the rock cycle; and plate tectonics as the unifying framework for earthquakes, volcanism, and mountain building. The course also introduces geologic time through stratigraphic principles and radiometric dating basics, plus surface processes such as weathering, soils, mass wasting, and stream erosion. Practical geologic literacy skills are developed through basic quantitative reasoning and interpretation of topographic and geologic maps, cross-sections, and simple geologic histories.